Doreen Kopacz

ENG 251 Survey of World Literature I

Literature’s Reflection In The Sea

Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaues), an Egyptian astronomer, recorded the first principles of navigation in his literary work The Almagest. Ptolemy applied mathematical principle to explain the motion of the universe. It was not until the 16^th century that Copernicus postulated the correct theory that the sun was indeed the center of the universe not the earth as Ptolemy speculated (Encarta). Ptolemy’s theory of the earth being a sphere led to the invention of the armillary sphere, a device for the location of constellations. Early armillary spheres on

display at the museum resemble a globe, but they are not solid. The armillary consists of metal rings connected one inside the other whose lines intersect at different angles to form a sphere. The Almagest, originally written in Greek, was translated into Arabic, and in the 10^th century the Arabs used Ptolemy’s principle to calculate the circumference of the earth. Ptolemy’s theories also are attributed to the invention of the astrolabe, the first scientific instrument Arabs used for navigation. The astrolabe, a small instrument easily carried on board ship, resembles the modern day hand held compass used for taking bearings. Instead of a compass rose the astrolabe consisted of two dials and a hand. The astrolabe was used to determine time and latitude. Arabs taught the Europeans how to use the astrolabe in the 12^th century. Ptolemy’s theories in The Almagest were used in the 16^th century by Abraham Ortelius who designed the first modern world Atlas and by Gerardus Mercator who developed map projections representing meridians.

With early sea travel came the need for maps. Medieval cartographers used Ptolemy’s sphere theory and charted the seas on round maps. At the museum the displays indicate that the cartographers referred to these as T-in-O or wheel maps. These displays include decorations relating them to descriptions and motifs in ancient and medieval literature. The wheel maps on display were decorated with Christian symbols and monsters. One display at the museum came from the Six Books Of Universal Cosmography, 1558 by Sebastian Munster. The replication of Munster’s work depicted what appeared to be a whale with

ferocious teeth. Another drawing resembled a lobster, its size so exaggerated, it appeared to have a man in its claw. The image of a dolphin appeared to have the head of a boar. In Munster’s drawing a ship was seen being engulfed by the tentacles of an octopus. References to sea monsters appear in Homer’s The Odyssey ". . . counting off the sea-beasts" (Norton Anthology 259). Odysseus relates his fear of these creatures while adrift and tired, " ‘-supposing cold and fatigue will go, and sweet sleep come. I fear I make the wild beasts easy prey’ " (278). The cartographers seemed to be influenced by the same concepts that are reflected in early literature.

Another reflection of early literature comes from the collection of miniature ships modeled by A.F. Crabtree. The earliest evidence of watercraft is a model of an Egyptian ship depicted from reliefs in the Temple of Dier el Bahari near Thebes. The wooded ship contains a single mast with a square sail and many oars fixed down each side of the vessel. I would picture the ships in The Odyssey to closely resemble the model from this passage, "[m]y oarsmen followed, filing in to their benches by the rowlocks, and all in line dipped oars in the grey sea" (310). The model was colorfully decorated with what appeared to be Egyptian symbols and images. On the bow was the image of a man with the head of a bird. I took this to symbolize the Egyptian god Horus mentioned in The Leiden

Hymns (Norton 310). On the stern was the figure of a man with the sun above his head, perhaps the Egyptian god Re.

Remarkably the basic design of ships seemed to stay the same through the middle ages. Different cultures used the same design with some variation to the size and position of sails. Medieval vessels contained intricate carvings around the entire hull. Different cultures carried the same ornamentation, but varied symbols on their bowsprits. A model of the 10^th century ship of William the Conqueror’s looked very similar to the ancient Egyptian vessel with a slightly smaller sail. The bowsprit contained the carving of a dragon, perhaps reflecting William’s Viking ancestry. The model of the 15^th century Venetian ship "Galleass" also was equipped with oars and sails. The bowsprit supported the carving of a boar’s head and cherubim lined the entire hull. A Dutch model also contained the carvings of cherubim, and the bowsprit was decorated by the figure of a unicorn. Even 17^th century ship design resembled the earliest maritime vessels. The model of a 17^th century British Naval vessel on display was not outfitted with oars, only sails, but the design and ornamentation resembled earlier ships. A rampant crowned lion adored the bowsprit, while carvings of cherubim appeared on both sides of the bow and along the stern. A 17^th century French ship equipped with oars and sails displayed Pegasus flying on the bowsprit, cherubim adored the sides, and a winged Poseidon is seen on each side of the stern. After viewing these immaculate models and incorporating the knowledge I have gained thus far in literature class, I perceive that these beasts, monsters, and gods are symbolic to each culture and era. It is likely the ancient Egyptians felt a sense of protection from the gods that were depicted on their ships. The presence of these pictures may also represent that the purpose of the voyage was to please the gods and there fore their fellow citizens. On medieval vessels I believe the beasts and monsters were an acknowledgement of the metaphysical, which appears to be a prevalent concept of this era. Perhaps this symbolic presence might attain a near heroic status for those who dared the mysteries of the sea. While bowsprit carvings and paintings display cultural differences the function of some decorative symbols seem to be comparable. The cherubim seem to symbolize protection for the sailors on board these ships. In ancient literature the cherubim acted as guards in the Book of Genesis. "So he drove out the man; and he placed at the east of the garden of Eden Cherubims, and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life" (Norton 67). Even on modern vessels in some countries the same motifs appear in decorations as are present in ancient and medieval literature. Two authentic Portuguese fishing boats from the early 1900’s are on display at the museum. One contains the paintings of Pegasus and a male divinity; the other has a cross, fish, and a pierced heart along its stern.

A thorough visit to the Mariners Museum reveals definite comparisons and relationships between maritime history and literature. It seems that cultures collaborated or assimilated the written knowledge and inventions of Ptolemy to navigate the oceans. Modern celestial navigation is a culmination of these endeavors. Drawings and pictures affixed to early navigation maps appear to show societal attitudes that are also present in early literature. The pictures seem to be direct reflections from literary descriptions. The ornamentation of ships is reflected in ancient and medieval literature. This ornamentation appears to serve the same symbolic intent as it did in early literature. Vessel design from earliest maritime history through the 19^th century show cultures absorbing each other’s knowledge. The differences and similarities in early literature, cultures and navigation appear to merge inside the Mariners Museum.

Note

Information, facts, and descriptions not citied were obtained from museum placards and personal observations.

Works Citied

"Genesis." King James Version. Maynard Mack, ed. 64-83.

Homer. "The Odyssey." Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. Maynard Mack, ed. 219-503.

"The Leiden Hymns." Trans. John Foster. Maynard Mack, ed. 48-9.

Mack, Maynard, ed. The Norton Anthology World Masterpieces: Volume 1

Beginning to 1650. Expanded Edition. New York: W. W. Norton and

Company, Inc., 1995.

"Ptolemy." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2000.

http://encarta.msn.com (21 Sept. 2000).