The period between the second century BCE and the second century CE is known to biblical historians as the "Intertestamental Period," that is it marked the closure of the canon of the Hebrew scriptures and the formation of the canon of the Christian scriptures. This period is important to Jews because it includes the devastating Jewish revolt against the Roman empire, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple and the end of sacrificial worship, and it is important to Christians because it represents the matrix in which Jesus of Nazareth and his earliest disciples were formed. Because it was a period of tremendous theological diversity within Jewish practice, recent scholars of religion have tended to characterize it in the plural--Judaisms--rather than representing it as a single monolithic religious orthodoxy. What we know about this period comes from several sources: the Christian scriptures (not a particularly reliable historical document because they were often hostile to Jewish authorities), the first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus and the philosopher Philo of Alexandria, the Dead Sea Scrolls, archeological remains, and inscriptions.

Second Temple Priesthood. Since the building of the Second Temple after the Babylonian Exile, with its attendant rise in the power of the priestly class, the priests had lived in an uneasy alliance with imperial power, first under the Persians, then under the Greek Seleucids (followed by a brief Jewish Hasmonean "kingship" of the descendents of Judas Maccabeus, who were more priests than true kings), and finally under the Romans. Like any powerful elite, they sometimes tended to look out for their own interests but were also concerned that apocalyptic, messianic insurgencies (like the religious Essenes or the political Zealots) did not upset the relationship with Roman civil authority.

Pharisees. A reform and renewal movement within Judaism, the Pharisees might be understood as the intertestamental counterpart of today's evangelical fundamentalist Christians. The adhered strictly to Deuteronomic and Levitical laws. They believed in resurrection and an afterlife of reward or punishment, which represented religious innovations. They urged reform not only of the priestly class but also the application of priestly purity requirements to all Jews and to every aspect of daily life. After the destruction of the Second Temple and the end of temple sacrifice, Phariseeism became the foundation of rabbinic Judaism.

Sadducees. Little is known about Sadducees since none of the sources is written from their perspective and are, instead, hostile to Sadducees. They apparently had some association with ruling and priestly classes, though the exact nature of that relationship is not clear. They rejected resurrection, (which is why they were sad, you see--horrible pun, but it helps you remember this distinction), afterlife, and judgment, which demonstrates the extent to which they were conservatives allied with more ancient Jewish traditions and would have interpreted the scriptures more literally.

Essenes. The discovery of the "library" at Qumran (the so-called Dead Sea Scrolls) and the subsequent archeological excavations of that area give us rich details about a breakaway apocalyptic, messianic community whose ideas may have influenced John the Baptizer and his disciple, Jesus of Nazareth. At sites throughout Palestine, they physically separated themselves from Jerusalem and may have established an alternative to Second Temple worship. They were led by a messianic and charismatic "Teacher of Righteousness." The Essenes held all property in common (and shared meals in common) and were divided into celibate men (who never married) and men who married with families (but who might be separated from them for purposes of ritual purity). They offered hospitality to other members but shunned outsiders. Admission into the group entailed a rigorous apprenticeship lasting several years, culminating in a baptismal initiation. They believed themselves to be the "Sons of Light" who were destined to engage the "Sons of Darkness" (which included Jews who had assimilated into Roman imperial culture) in a final apocalyptic battle. One can readily see the similarities among Essene beliefs, the teachings of John the Baptist, the message and deeds of Jesus of Nazareth, and the formation of the early Jewish-Christian community.

Samaritans. Long considered by Jews to be outsiders, the northern Samaritans (a remnant of the Kingdom of Israel who considered themselves to be the authentic representatives of Mosaic Judaism) built their own rival temple on Mount Gerizim and worshipped there, rather than in Jerusalem, and used their own version of the Pentateuch.